Sample Essay

1
SAMPLE ESSAY
The essay which follows is not perfect! It was, however judged to be an
excellent essay and was given a mark of 74%. It is presented here as an
example of first class work.
The mark reflects some weakness in content particularly in the second
part of the question. The essay was also well over-length (4650 words for
a 3500-4000 word essay.) N.B. word count does not include abstract or
bibliography. The mark sheet is attached at the end. Please note that
this has been amended for academic year 2003-2004. The occasional
citation errors are pointed out but were not penalised.
It is a well presented essay, with a clear structure. Points are well
supported from the literature and there is some critical discussion of what
the student has read. The essay showed evidence of very wide reading
(nearly 40 items in the bibliography) but the writer could have achieved the
same mark with a lot less. There was a heavy reliance on some basic
reading list material in places that did not do justice to the amount of
independent research.
There are marginal comments throughout the essay. Passages
referred to are marked in red.
2
"As new strategies are implemented in any organisation, tension and
conflicts are likely to arise ... such conflicts must be confronted, no matter
how uncomfortable it may feel to operate in such a situation. " Discuss in
relation to LIS organisations and examine the management strategies
which attempt to confront the problem of conflict.
Abstract
Conflict in organisations arises when people perceive things differently or want
different things. Conflict is particularly likely to arise during change because it is
at such times that established ways of working are challenged. Libraries and
Information Services (LIS) are undergoing a period of considerable change in
which tensions are unavoidable. Most arguments regarding change and conflict
apply generally because they reflect the human factors common to most
organisations. Therefore, illustrative examples from LIS are used within the
context of the more general argument. A discussion of the nature and types of
organisational change is followed by an examination of how such disruption can
generate resistance and conflict. A dichotomy arises because, whilst recognising
that conflict can become destructive and undermine organisational performance,
most commentators argue that a degree of conflict is both inevitable and healthy,
if channelled productively. Five strategies for conflict resolution are discussed:
collaboration; competition; accommodation; avoidance and compromise. It is
argued that a collaborative and participative approach is the most likely means of
securing co-operation, and that a manager needs to be able to deploy a variety of
approaches to conflict resolution, depending on the circumstances.
Abstract initially
reads too much like
an introduction. The
abstract should
simply state what the
essay sets our to do,
what it covers, and its
conclusions
Note how the writer has analysed this question by looking at his side headings.
These reflect the title closely: a) Organisational change, b) Sources of conflict
during organisational change. c) The need to confront tensions and conflict,
d) Management startegies for dealing with conflict
3
Introduction
The Oxford English Dictionary1 defines conflict as "a state of opposition ... the
clashing of opposed principles...the opposition of incompatible wishes or needs".
Change is "the act or an instance of making or becoming different." It is not
surprising, then, that organisations experience tensions when new strategies are
introduced, as it is at just such times that established principles and methods are
most likely to be challenged, altered or jettisoned. The present environment in
which LIS are operating is one of rapid technological development, increasing
competition and social change (Bluck, in Pinder and Melling, 1996). Like many
other organisations, they have had to reassess conventional practices, are
adopting new structures, strategies and values, and are developing new skills
amongst their staff.
For a manager, dealing with change presents a dichotomy. Buchanan and
Huczynski (1991) point out the paradox that differences are essential to change
but that it is these differences which can generate disputes. As Deutsch (in
Vayrynen, 1991) points out, conflict is likely if there is a perceived incompatibility
or if the participants perceive that there is utility in conflict, that is, something to
be gained or less to lose than by remaining passive. However, many writers,
including Handy (1993), Mullins (1996) and Edelmann (1993), argue that a
certain amount of conflict is both inevitable and healthy, provided it is directed
positively. The danger is that conflict can become personal and negative, and
undermine individual and organisational performance. Striking a balance
between the two is easier said than done and a manager will need to employ a
variety of methods in attempting to do so. For the most part, the strategies for
managing change and conflict in LIS are no different to those which apply to
organisations in general because, essentially, they all deal with human reactions
to a changing environment. Indeed the LIS literature on the subject reflects these
general themes (for example, Eggleton, 1979; Allred, 1987; Baker, 1989; Buch,
1997; Pettas and Gilliland, 1992). Therefore, the framework for this discussion
will a general one, with examples from LIS where appropriate.
1 1995, Concise, 9th ed. Oxford, OUP.
Note use of footnote.
Sometimes useful but
this one is
unnecessary. OED
should be in bib.
Citation error.
Entry in bib. is
Huczynski and
Buchanan.
Long paragraphs
like this could be
split up more for
easier reading.
Note the excellent
support from
multiple sources
Citation correct but.
Bib. entry is under
Bluck – should match
text citation - Pinder –
the source referred to
4
Organisational change
According to Daft (1994), managers sense a need for change when they perceive
a performance gap, that is, a disparity between existing and desired levels of
performance. It seems a somewhat narrow definition in that it implies that all
change is planned and positive and seems to ignore the possibility of unplanned
and potentially negative change - for example, unexpected budget cuts. This
said, most change is planned, is intended to be positive and arises from the need
to respond to new challenges and opportunities (Mullins, 1996).
Organisational change may be incremental (linear) or radical (discontinuous). It
may be a reactive response to external, environmental factors or generated
proactively in anticipation of future trends (Hamel, 1998). Both, however, are a
response to how an organisation perceives its current or future environment.
Indeed, one can detect a Darwinian 'adapt or die' thread running though many
authors interpretations (Goble, 1997; Hamel, 1998; St Clair, 1996), a concept
summed up pithily by Handy (1993, p.291) with "change is a necessary condition
of survival".
Environmental factors include technology, government, the economy and societal
values and behaviour. For instance, in recent years, LIS have had to adapt to
the rapid development of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) and
the Labour government's plans for national computer networks in public libraries
and schools. As Goble (1997) notes, they also face competition from external
providers in an increasingly commercialised information services market where
there is rapid price inflation for both printed and electronic sources, adding
pressure to already tight budgets. Further, in a service economy, consumers
have become more demanding and, lastly, the composition of the workforce is
changing, with an ageing population, more women, plus more part-timers and job
sharing (Mullins, 1996).
In response to, or in anticipation of such factors, organisations may initiate
change. This can incorporate both structure (hierarchy and division of work) and
culture (how things are done - values and norms), and such change may involve,
amongst other things, costs, job design, staff development and training, working
conditions and new services or products (Cornell, 1996).
Note use of
citation as part of
sentence. Helps
flow of sense.
Citation following a
sentence. Note stop
comes after
citation.
Good use of
side headings
to lead the
reader through
the arguments
5
Implementing such changes is not easy. Likert, in Cornell, (1996) identifies three
styles of managing change: authoritative (imposed by management); consultative
(discussed with staff but still decided by management) and participative (involving
staff in decision- making). Further, Lewin's widely cited model breaks the
management of change into three phases. First, unfreezing - diagnosing
problems and an awareness of the need to change. Second, changing - the
breaking of old habits and adoption of new skills and behaviour and third,
refreezing - evaluating and consolidating the changes (Daft, 1994; Cava, 1990;
Cornell, 1996; Mullins, 1996).
However, Handy (1993, p.292), doubts whether change can be 'managed' at all:
"To 'manage change' is wishful thinking, implying as it does that one not only knows
where to go and how to get there but can persuade everyone else to travel there."
He continues that change can at best be 'cultivated' through channelling and
learning, not controlling. Fundamentally, what Handy is advocating is Likert's
(op.cit.) participative approach or what Senge (in Goble, 1997) describes as the
'Learning Organisation'. This is an organisation in which change is welcome and
accepted and which never 'arrives' but constantly seeks to improve. Senge
stresses that people are the most important element in change, not technology or
processes. This model also emphasises the need for clarity of purpose, and for
dialogue and discussion through teamworking and empowerment, that is, a
participative management style. It is reasoned that by involving staff in decisions
which affect them and giving them greater responsibility for their work, they will
become 'empowered', will 'own' solutions and accept change more readily (ibid.).
There is general agreement with this view (amongst others - Underwood, 1990;
Cornell, 1996; Hamel, 1998; Mullins, 1996).
Reality, of course, is somewhat removed form academic models. To return to
Handy's (1993) evolutionary analogy, I would argue that Change is not always a
condition of survival - successful genes, such as those in crocodiles or, more
pertinently, humans, have remained stable over geological time spans.
Good use of evidence
to support points
although the writer is
beginning to rely too
heavily on three
reading list items:
Daft, Handy and
Mullins.
Typo not picked up
by spell checker.
Read your essay!
Good critical
comment. Writer
could have avoided
personalisation as
shown by
strikethrough
Nicely presented
‘long’ quote.
Reduced point size,
separated from text
and indented. Note
page number after
author. Page no,
could just as well
have been placed
after the quote.
1
Moreover, the norms and mores which our society conditions us to aspire to -
family values, owning a home, upholding the law - are based upon stability and,
as Duening (1997) notes, most people are creatures of habit and crave a sense
of belonging. This is not to say that change is bad or unnecessary. Rather, it is
an observation that, participative or not, change goes against the grain for many
because it upsets the psychological status quo (Baker, 1989). As such, a fear of
change is rational and even change that is commonly agreed to be for the best
can be unsettling and generate conflicting feelings of loss and discomfort (ibid.).
Where there is disagreement over change, resistance will be greater and Smith
in Buch, (1997) contends that a startling 80% of organisational change efforts fail.
Therefore, understanding how and why organisational change is likely to
generate such tensions is clearly of considerable importance.
Sources of conflict during organisational change.
Cornell (1996) identifies four responses to change: withdrawal (including
resignation), resistance, acceptance (a reluctant bowing to the inevitable) and
embracing (welcoming change and the opportunities it brings). The first three of
these indicate conflict. DeBono (1985) provides a simple framework which helps
to explain why such reactions occur. He states that people disagree because
they want different things or because they perceive things differently.
Organisational change provides ample opportunity for either or both of these
scenarios to cause conflict.
The style of change
As discussed above, participation, provided it is genuine, is widely regarded as
the most effective way of introducing change with minimum of resistance. (it is
also seen as one of the more productive strategies for dealing with conflict should
it arise (Baker, 1989; Mullins, 1996; Handy, 1993 - see below: Strategies for
managing conflict.) Nevertheless, Mullins, (1996) points out that it also requires
time and patience to establish, especially where, historically (as in many LIS),
there has been a hierarchical and bureaucratic culture where everyone 'knows
their place' and is not used to being consulted. In practical terms, it is more
decisive, quicker and therefore tempting to impose change with little or no
participation (ibid.). In addition, Duening (1997) warns against the
Useful side heading
keeps the writer on
the subject and
signpost the
direction of the
argument for the
marker.
Note how writer
has flagged
second level
heading by using
italics. Good
practice.
2
dangers of what he calls ‘catastrophist' management theories with their emphasis
on short-term
discontinuous change and the latest management fads. Whilst much is made of
the 'information age' and the 'knowledge economy', it should not be forgotten that
the human brain's capability to process information is unchanged (ibid.). Sykes
and Gerrard (1997), although writing in the context of the convergence of LIS and
ICT services, make the general point that change is unlikely to work if it is too
great a departure from existing practice and culture. Trying to change too much
too quickly is likely to be counter productive as people will not be able to deal
with it effectively. As Mullins (1996) observes, the adoption of an autocratic
approach to change, or an over-ambitious one, shows a failure to appreciate the
human aspects of change and is likely to generate fear, uncertainty and hostility.
Poor Communication
Closely linked to the style of management is communication. Managers who do
not communicate effectively run the risk that their plans and motives will be
misunderstood and generate resistance. If the reasons for change are not
justified and explained, rumour and speculation can fill the void (Daft, 1994) and
undermine the credibility of the project. Further, Clampitt (1991) remarks, that
informing people of an idea is not the same as persuading them that it is a good
one. Likewise, Mullins, (1996) warns that managers who are enthused and
motivated by proposed changes must beware of assuming that staff will
automatically be similarly engaged simply by the prospect.
Structure and Culture
Communication is both a contributory factor and a product of an organisation's
structure and culture. To focus on LIS once more, Prince and Burton (1988); St
Clair (1996) and Greenhalgh and Worpole (1995) all note that in recent years
there has been a move away from traditional structures and cultures which were
hierarchical, bureaucratic and function-based. In their place have come flatter
structures, convergence with computing services and more service- orientated,
entrepreneurial cultures which emphasise team-working, multi-skilling (reflecting
the growing use of ICT) and more participative management (Greenhalgh and
Note that in this para
the writer is making a
point and then
supporting it from the
evidence rather than
just saying what the
‘experts’ think. This
is how the literature
should be used.
3
Worpole, 1995; Buch, 1997; Shaughnessy, 1996). Librarians and LIS managers
in all sectors must now possess a wider range of educational, financial and
management skills than was the case when the more passive, 2 bureaucratic
models prevailed (Greenhalgh and Worpole, 1995; Kinnell, 1991; St Clair, 1996;
Heery, 1993).
There are many, including Fisher (1998), Heery (993), Greenhalgh and Worpole
(1995) and St Clair (1996), who believe that the changes to structures, cultures
and skills, plus the development of the concept of Knowledge Management2,
represent a major shift in LIS provision. By contrast, there is a minority, and it
must be said that the argument seems to have gone against them, who argue
that the new LIS models simply represent acquiescence in the face of financial
restraint (Roberts, 1992). Ratcliffe (in Roberts, 1992, p.170) states that the
innovators are operating under
"...the delusion that librarianship has undergone a fundamental change, instead of
recognising merely that libraries have benefited from new techniques in retrieving
information."
There seems to be something of the ostrich with its head in the sand about this
view. I would argue that, Acquiescent or not, the changes are significant and, as
discussed below, can and do generate tensions in a number of ways.
Threat
First, such changes may be perceived as a threat to the established order and
specialisms. For example, placing previously independent subject specialists
into a liaison team with joint responsibilities may be regarded by some as deskilling
and a loss of status. Multi-skilling and the current debate about the
validity of the professional-paraprofessional division (highlighted, for example, by
the 'Fielden report' (John Fielden Consultancy, 1993)) may be perceived
similarly. In my own library experience, plans to train paraprofessional staff in
basic cataloguing were perceived by professionally qualified cataloguers as a
threat to their status, despite the fact that the intention was to release them to
concentrate on the more demanding and interesting work.
2 Knowledge management: the analysis and planning of work, learning, available and required information in order to
maximise an organisation’s knowledge resources (Information Outlook 1998)
A good example of
a student’s critical
comment about
what they have
read. Again no need
to personalise.
A good example
of the writer
discussing
conflicting
viewpoints
Good use of
footnote for a
definition that
would have
disrupted the flow
of an argument.
The footnote ref.
still needs to be in
the Bibliography.
4
Fear of the unknown
As touched upon previously, a natural fear of the unknown can be a source of
tension. Staff may have to deal simultaneously with the 'loss' of familiar working
relationships and duties at the same time as trying to learn new skills and adapt
to new ways of working (Bridges in Buch, 1997). Examples include the re-skilling
required to support ICT in LIS, the convergence of LIS and ICT and attempts to
create more flexible team cultures. Therefore, in addition to feelings akin to grief,
staff may perceive a loss of competence, expressed as anxiety and/or resistance
to the new regime (ibid.). Sykes and Gerrard (1997) record that initial resistance
to such changes at Liverpool John Moores University (JMU) was considerable,
the more so because change was imposed with little initial staff involvement.
Roles and Resources
Change may also create conflict over resources and roles. Individuals and
departments will each perceive change from within their own context. A certain
degree of parochialism and what De Bono (1985) calls 'local logic' is inevitable. If
departmental briefs and individual job descriptions are not carefully updated and
clarified, re-structuring can provide ample opportunity for turf-wars between
departments, ambiguity over responsibilities, and workloads which are too great
or small (McGurn, 1990; Eggleton, 1979). Split or dispersed sites, a feature of
many LIS, present a further problem, and attempts to iron out cultural
idiosynchracies or a perception that one site receives preference can also cause
confrontations (Bryson, 1990).
Personalities, Values and Priorities
Perceptions and values permeate an individual's view of their environment
(Lippitt in Bryson, 1990). Since everyone is different, it is therefore not surprising
that much organisational conflict arises from clashes of personalities, opinions,
and priorities which may be projected into the wider organisational context
(Bundy and Wasserman in Allred, 1987). With the challenges facing LIS, such
clashes are unavoidable. Thus, at organisational level, issues such as charging
for services (and which ones); the potential conflict between providing services to
core users and the need to generate income; private finance initiatives in the
public sector, and the use of paraprofessionals in previously professional roles,
all have conflict potential. Indeed, the entire professional-paraprofessional
Spelling error. Use
Spell/grammar check
+ a good dictionary
for those words Spell
check doesn’t
recognise
Note correct
citation of an
author referred
to by another.
5
distinction has been criticised as divisive, inflexible and likely to create frustration
amongst paraprofessional staff by restricting career development (Bundy in
Allred, 1987; John Fielden Consultancy, 1993).
At a less fundamental level, conflict during change may arise from differences in
age and experience, from general bureaucratic inertia to innovation and from a
straightforward clash of personalities (Pettas and Gilliland, 1992; Rotondi in
Eggleton, 1979).
The need to confront tensions and conflict
In dealing with this issue, one must return briefly to the dichotomy identified
previously between constructive and destructive conflict. It follows that managers
need to be aware of what is going on if they are to distinguish between the two
and intervene if necessary. Among the advantages cited for a healthy level of
organisational conflict are that open conflict resolution and a robust difference of
opinion are beneficial in improving trust and working relations and that more
creative solutions are produced because the issues are explored openly and fully
(Eisenhardt et al, 1997; Edelmann, 1993; Allred, 1987). The techniques which
seek to achieve this are discussed in the next section. However, during
organisational changes, managers are more likely to face the symptoms of
negative conflict, especially if the changes are major.
Resistance to change may take a number of forms. Where change is
successfully implemented, the initial disorientation and sense of loss staff may
feel will be overcome in time. However, if communication is poor; if managers fail
to convince staff of the validity of change; fail to address their concerns or
provide adequate training and support, then Cornell's (1996) negative responses
may result. To recap, these are reluctant acceptance, resistance or withdrawal.
With the former, symptoms may include grumbling and reminiscing about how
much better things were before. 'Resistance' may take active or passive forms
6
(Feldman in Baker, 1989). Strikes or sabotage, in extreme cases, or a refusal to
co-operate with new procedures, are examples of active resistance. Task
avoidance or postponement and doing the bare minimum may indicate a nonconfrontational
but, in my experience (both LIS and non-LIS), far more common
type of resistance. Whilst there may be other causes, absenteeism and a high
turnover of staff are possible indicators of a conflict which has reached such a
pitch that individuals have withdrawn from it rather than continue to face it
(Bridges in Buch, 1997).
Such conflicts incur costs for an organisation - individual stress, diversion from
organisational goals, interpersonal or inter-group hostility, distorted
communications, distrust and damaged working relationships, all of which may
contribute to decreased productivity and poor performance (Allred, 1987; Baker
1989). Successful conflict resolution strategies and, where possible, the
prevention of destructive conflict are, therefore, important to all organisations.
Management strategies for dealing with conflict
In dealing with conflict, especially during change, strategies fall into two broad
areas. First, there are those techniques which may be used to try and channel
conflict constructively and prevent negative confrontations and second, there are
strategies for dealing with conflict once it has arisen. A manager's attitude will
depend largely on his/her own perception of conflict. Three perspectives are
widely identified in the literature (for example, Mullins, 1996; Buchanan and
Huczynski, 1991; Allred, 1987). The traditional (unitary) view of conflict sees it as
entirely negative and arising from management failure or the presence of 'troublemakers'.
Therefore, conflict is viewed as a phenomenon to be resolved and
eliminated (ibid). In contrast, the interactionists have argued that conflict is an
inevitable fact of human and organisational life, is linked to change and that,
sensitively managed, a level of conflict can be a good thing (ibid.). The latter is
generally regarded as the most productive (Handy, 1993; Mullins, 1996; Buch,
1997; Eisenhardt et al, 1997). Nevertheless, as Maslow (in Allred, 1987, p.8)
points out, many people retain from childhood:
“,a fear of conflict, of disagreement, of hostility ... there is much emphasis on getting
along well with other people...".
Writer uses their
own experience
effectively and
succinctly.
7
Therefore, overcoming a natural instinct to regard all disagreement as a failure to
be 'managed' is essential to an interactionist approach.
Seeking to prevent destructive conflict involves good planning, good
communication, clarity of purpose and participation. Before any of this, as St
Clair (1994) observes, managers must evaluate the need for change - What is
the goal? Is it justified and a priority? Is it worth the cost? How will it affect the
organisation and individuals? Cava (1990)stresses that timely and clear
communication with the staff affected is vital in order to justify and 'sell' the
changes, and address their concerns, fears, objections and needs.
During change, clear job descriptions and adequate training are important to
reduce confusion and anxiety (Pettas and Gilliland, 1993). This participative
approach is favoured by, amongst others, Baker (1989), Cava (1990), and
Mullins (1996), on the grounds that involving staff early on will help to overcome
natural resistance, anticipate and address potential problems, reduce fear based
on ignorance and encourage staff to 'own' the changes because they have been
involved in the process. It also recognises the need for managers to empathise
with the feelings of staff and accept that a sense of 'loss' and the associated
emotions, including anger, are a natural part of change (Mullins, 1996). Clearly,
some changes are more controversial and difficult to introduce than others and
will not be without upset. For instance, a library closure is never popular whereas
a staff training programme in ICT may well be welcomed. However, research by
Simmons and Proctor (1998) into public library closures suggests that, even in
apparently dire circumstances, by planning ahead to address issues such as job
security, by making senior management visible and adopting a timely and honest
approach to information, co-operation can be secured and negative reaction
reduced.
Such a participative approach may serve to reduce the potential for damaging
conflict but, I would contend, human nature and 'Murphy's Law' will ensure that
managers will have to deal with conflicting interests and parties when change is
introduced. Pettas and Gilliland (1992) observe, and commonsense dictates,
that before attempting to resolve any conflict, a manager must seek to
Good critical
comment but
highlighted phrase
should be replaced
with e.g.
‘it can be argued’ to
avoid personalisation
8
determine its history, who the stakeholders are and identify the real and dominant
issues which may underlie the apparent cause. The terminology varies but five
basic strategies are identified for dealing with conflict (Handy, 1993; Bryson,
1990; Thomas in Buchanan and Huczynski, 1991). Thomas (op.cit.) describes
these as collaboration, competition, accommodation, avoidance and
compromise. Which strategy to use, and when, depends upon the
circumstances.
Collaboration is the participative, interactionist approach applied to conflict
resolution and the general arguments rehearsed previously do not require
repetition. It is also the approach favoured by advocates of maintaining a healthy
level of organisational conflict. As Eisenhardt et al 1997, p.77) put it, "the
absence of conflict is not harmony, it's apathy". The emphasis is on designing
solutions through teamwork and shared information, within a balanced power
structure which discards domination as a tactic (Graham, 1998).
Collaborative conflict resolution is based upon an appeal to the common goals of
the organisation, and stresses that it is in the self-interest of all the parties to
come up with a solution which works towards institutional goals (Handy, 1993).
De Bono (1985) and Gourlay (1987) both argue that by starting with such goals in
mind and working back, conflicts can be more effectively resolved because the
negotiation will become more problem-centred and constructive rather than
conflict- centred and selfish. Moreover, by initially ignoring a central sticking
point and working on other issues, the central point may either become irrelevant
or resolvable as other options are generated (De Bono, 1985). Sykes and
Gerrard (1997) note that involving staff in the design and development of new job
descriptions and competencies was a crucial factor in overcoming resistance to
convergence, particularly at Liverpool JMU. A manager may also act as an
'honest broker' in such situations and mediate between two conflicting views in
an attempt to reach a resolution (Edelmann, 1993). Such a role depends on the
manager being perceived as credible and neutral and in some instances it may
be necessary to bring in an arbitrator from outside the department concerned or,
in extreme cases, from an external organisation (Eggleton, 1979).
Good use of a
‘short’ quote as part
of the text. Note
addition of page
number in citation.
9
So, there is general approval for collaboration and what Bryson (1990) calls the
win-win approach. On the down side, it is more time consuming than other
methods (Mullins, 1996). Under the reality of day to day pressures this is not an
insignificant point, and may lead to other, more expedient but less effective
strategies being employed (Whetton and Cameron in Allred, 1987). Moreover,
what seems to be lacking at times in the literature is an appreciation that
individuals do not all respond the same way. Perhaps it is unavoidable in general
texts and articles (for example, Handy, 1993; McGurn, 1990) but there seems to
be an unstated assumption that, once introduced, participation and collaboration
will be universally appreciated. However, in each of the four organisations of
which I have experience, there have been those who would have no desire to be
'empowered' - they just want to do their job and go home. Every organisation
also has its habitual 'doom-merchants' who respond negatively to everything.
Inculcating a participative culture in which collaborative conflict resolution is the
norm is a long- term process (Mullins, 1996), requiring both persistence and
patience from a manager.
The second of Thomas's (op.cit.) categories is competition or forcing. Essentially
this is the exertion of the manager's legitimate power. It has the advantages of
being quick and decisive and may be appropriate when a manager is certain he
or she is right on an important issue or when disciplinary action is necessary
(ibid.). However, it also a technique which is a blunt instrument. Described as
the win-lose or zero-sum approach, forcing creates winners and losers in a
conflict, can store up potentially damaging resentment and does not ‘resolve'
problems in the way that collaboration does (Allred, 1987). Despite this, research
by Whetton and Cameron (in Allred, 1987) found that it is the most commonly
used approach because it is expedient. They also found that forcing is the tool
most used by unsuccessful managers who are unable to solve conflicts in other
ways.
McGurn (1990) summarises accommodation as appeasement or compliance.
This may be because one party realises it is wrong or is losing anyway. A
manager may also use this method if the issue is clearly more important to the
injured party than to the manger or the organisation, if the need for stability
Good use of own
experience to
question the view
from the literature.
Could have avoided
personalisation by
simpy saying
‘However, work
experience
shows…’
Again, the writer
very effectively
makes his own
points and supports
them from the
literature - rather
than simply saying
Bryson says this,
Mullins says that...
10
outweighs the value of prolonging the dispute, or perhaps to allow staff to
develop and learn from experience (Thomas, op.cit.).
In some respects avoidance resembles accommodation. Accommodation at
least acknowledges that a conflict exists, though, whereas avoiding a conflict
implies a refusal to deal it. It is not a strategy to be used readily because if the
dispute has any substance then suppressing it will simply make things worse
(Allred, 1987). Indeed there are probably only two instances where it is of use.
First, if the conflict is trivial or secondly in order to let people cool down and allow
the manager to assess the situation calmly (McGurn, 1990).
Compromise has been described as a lose-lose strategy and yet still holds wide
currency as an effective conflict resolution strategy (Graham, 1998). It is most
likely where the conflicting parties carry equal weight and is a trade-off, with each
making concessions but neither achieving its original aims. It is for this reason
that the lose-lose tag applies - the conflict has not been resolved because
differences are not fully explored and each side generally seeks to concede as
little as possible (ibid.). Nevertheless, as a fall-back position or as a means of
creating a temporary settlement to allow time for a more collaborative solution to
be found, compromise can be a helpful strategy (Thomas, op.cit.).
Conclusion
Change and how people react to it are important features of organisational life.
Conflicts can arise at any time but because it derives from people wanting or
perceiving different things, a period of change is, by its very nature, likely to
provoke mixed reactions, ranging from enthusiastic acceptance to overt
resistance. As discussed above, interpretations about the scale of the changes
currently facing LIS vary. My own view is that whilst much change, especially in
the public and academic sectors was initially driven by the political and economic
realities of Thatcherism in the 1980s, the rapid development of ICT represents far
more than “new techniques in retrieving information" and is generating both new
services and new approaches to the delivery of LIS.
Such changes cannot occur without creating feelings of anxiety, tension, fear and
loss. For management, the challenge is not so much how to 'avoid' or
The conclusion is too
short and does not do
full justice to the
body of the essay.
The entire second
part of the question is
covered by only one
sentence (the last).
Don’t use ibid and
op cit. Writer could
have moved
‘Graham’ to position
of ibid. Thomas
should be given full
citation to avoid
reader having to
refer back.
11
suppress conflict as these changes occur, but to try and understand them and
provide effective support and mechanisms through which conflict can be directed
into productive channels. Whetton and Cameron's research (in Allred, 1987),
indicates that effective managers will employ a variety of techniques when
dealing with conflict, depending on the circumstances. There will always be
some who will respond negatively to change as a matter of course but, as
Edelmann (1993) states, if a genuine attempt to resolve tensions and conflict is
made then a manager should not blame him/herself if it is unsuccessful. Whilst
there is no perfect solution, collaboration and participation represent the most
effective techniques at a manger's disposal for securing co-operation and
confronting negative reactions during change.
Word Count 4,652
Remember to add your Word Count to each piece of work. (Don’t count the
abstract or bibliography). This essay is well over-length. This does not
necessarily mean that marks will be deducted but the writer could have
achieved the same mark with much less work. By writing at such length the
writer also risks hiding his arguments in too much detail and including
irrelevant material. If he had done this he would have had marks deducted.
12
Bibliography
Allred, C. B. (1987), "The anatomy of conflict: some thoughts on managing staff
conflict", Law Library Journal, 79 (1), Winter, pp.7-32.
Baker, S. L. (1989), "Managing resistance to change", Library Trends, 38 (1),
Summer, pp.53-61.
Bluck, R. (1996), "Organising libraries for customers" In: Pinder, C. and Melling,
M., Providing customer orientated services in academic libraries, London, Library
Association.
Bryson J. (1990), Effective Library and Information Centre Management,
Aldershot, Gower.
Buch, K. (1997), "Managing the human side of change", Library Administration
and Management, 11 (3), Summer, pp. 147-150.
Cava, R. (1990), Dealing with difficult people, London, Judy Piatkus.
Clampitt, P. G. (1991), Communicating for managerial effectiveness, Newbury
Park (USA), Sage.
Cornel, J. (1996), "Aspects of the management of change", Journal of
Management in Medicine, 10 (2), pp.23-30.
Daft, R. L. (1994), Management, 3rd ed., Fort Worth (USA), Dryden Press.
De Bono, E. (1985), Conflicts, a better way to resolve them, London, Penguin.
Deutsch, M. (1991), "Subjective features of conflict resolution: psychological,
social and cultural influences" In: Vayrynen, R. (ed.), New directions in conflict
theory. conflict resolution and transformation, London, Sage.
Duening, T. (1997), "Our turbulent times? The case for evolutionary change",
Business Horizons, 40 (1), January-February, pp.2-8.
Edelmann, R. J. (1993), Interpersonal conflicts at work, Leicester, BPS Books.
Eggleton, R. (1979), "Conflict in libraries revisited", Libri, 29, pp.64-77.
Eisenhardt, K. M., Kahwajy, J. L. & Bourgeois, L. J. (1997), "How
management teams can have a good fight", Harvard Business Review, 75 (4),
July-August, pp.77-85.
Fisher, A. (1998), "So what is the big fuss about", Library Association Record,
100 (4), April, p.190.
Goble, D. S. (1997), "Managing in a change environment", Library
Administration and Management, 11 (3), Summer, pp. 1 52-156.
Goss, D. (1994), Principles of Human Resource Management, London,
Routledge.
Gourlay, R. (1987), "Negotiations and Bargaining", Management Decision, 25
(3), Special issue: effective communications, pp. 16-27.
Graham, P. (1998), "Saying "no" to compromise and "yes" to integration",
Journal of Business Ethics, 17 (9-10), July, pp. 1007-1013.
Greenhalgh, L. & Worpole, K., with Landry, C. (1995), Libraries in a world of
cultural change, London, UCL Press.
An attractively
presented
bibliography. Items
are easy to find and
bib. conventions are
followed – i.e. titles
of monographs and
journals in italics.
There is a good mix
of book and journal
items.
This essay was
written in 1999 - so
there is a high
proportion of recent
material amongst the
writer’s sources. The
date explains the lack
of electronic
resources.
13
Hamel, G. (1998), "The challenge today: changing the rules of the game",
Business Strategy Review, 9 (2), pp. 1 9-26.
Handy, C. (1993), Understanding Organisations, 4th ed., London, Penguin.
Heery, M. (1993), "New model libraries: a question of realism", Journal of
Librarianship and Information Science, 25 (3), September, pp. 137-142.
Huczynski, A. and Buchanan, D. (1991), Organisational Behaviour, 2nd ed.,
Hemel Hempstead, Prentice Hall.
Information Outlook (1998), "Knowledge Management proves to be a hot topic
for SOTA '97", 2 (2), February, p.15.
John Fielden Consultancy (1993), Supporting expansion: a report on Human
Resources Management in academic libraries for the Joint Funding Council's
Libraries Review Group, Bristol, HEFCE.
Kinnell Evans, M. (1991), All change? Public library management strategies for
the 1990s, London, Taylor Graham.
McGurn, J. (1990), "Conflict management in the academic library", Journal of
Academic Librarianship, 16 (3), July, pp.145-149.
Mullins, L. J. (1996), Management and Organisational Behaviour, 4th ed.,
London, Pitman.
Pettas, W. & Gilliland, S. L. (1992), "Conflict in the large academic library",
Journal of Academic Librarianship, 18 (1), March, pp.24-29.
Prince, B. & Burton, P. F. (1988), "Changing directions in academic library
structures: the impact of IT", British Journal of Academic Librarianship, 3 (2),
pp.67-81.
Roberts, N. (1992), "New model librarians: a question of philosophy", Journal of
Librarianship & Information Science, 24(3), September, pp. 169-173.
St. Clair, G. (1994), Power and influence: enhancing information services within
the organisation, East Grinstead, Bowker-Saur.
St. Clair, G. (1996), Total Quality Management in information services, East
Grinstead, Bowker-Saur.
Shaughnessy, T. W. (1996), "Managing change in academic libraries", Journal
of Library Administration, 22 (213), pp.43-56.
Simmons, S. & Proctor, R. (1998), People, politics and hard decisions: an
investigation into the management of public library closures, British Library
Research and Innovation Report 132; , Sheffield, University of Sheffield.
Sykes, P. and Gerrard, S. (1997), "Operational convergence at Roehampton
Institute London and Liverpool John Moores University.", New Review of
Academic Librarianship, 3, pp.67-85.
Underwood, P. G. (1990), Managing change in libraries and information
services, London, Library Association.
1
Department of Information Studies: Coursework Report
Name: xxxxxxxxx
Programme: xxxxxxxxx
Module Name: INF6170 Human Resource Management
Title of Coursework: “As new strategies are implemented in any organisation, tensions and conflicts are likely to
arise...Such conflicts must be confronted, no matter how uncomfortable it may feel to operate
in such a situation” Discuss in relation to the impact of change on LIS organisations and
examine the management strategies which attempt to confront the problem of conflict.
Unconfirmed Grade: 74%
Content
100-70 69-60 59-50
Interpretation
and scope
Excellent. Scope appropriate.
Almost all significant points
covered.
Good attempt to reflect scope
of essay. Most key points
covered.
Attempt to cover scope of
topic but some omissions
and/or misunderstandings.
Understanding
of topic
Excellent understanding and
exposition of relevant issues.
Insightful and well informed.
Good awareness of nuances
and complexities.
Clear awareness and exposition
of relevant issues. Some
awareness of nuances and
complexities.
Shows awareness of the issues
but no more than to be
expected from attendance at
classes.
Use of literature a) Excellent use of evidence to
support arguments/points.
b) Significant independent
research.
Good use of evidence to
support arguments. Some
evidence of independent
research. .
Insufficient evidence of
independent research.
Evaluation and
synthesis of
evidence
Substantial evaluation and
synthesis of source material.
Some evaluation and synthesis
of source material.
Insufficient evaluation of
source material.
Critical analysis a) Outstanding standard of
critical analysis.
b) Questioning, unbiased
approach. Clear evidence of
independent thought
High standard of critical
analysis using appropriate
conceptual framework. Some
questioning of written sources
Uses appropriate conceptual
framework. Attempts analysis
but some omissions and/or
errors.
Structure, logical
development
Credible case made. Aims,
arguments and conclusions
compatible
Arguments clearly structured
and logically developed.
Arguments reasonably clear
but undeveloped.
Abstract Very clear definition of subject. Defines subject but
summary of aims, approach
and conclusions incomplete
Not clear.
Conclusion Excellent. Draws together
various points. Identifies key
issues, solutions.
Summarises most key
points/issues/outcomes
Conclusion does not do
justice to body of essay. Too
short.
Presentation
100-70 69-60 59-50
Spelling,
grammar and
syntax
High standard. Negligible
errors.
Acceptable standard.
Negligible errors.
A few errors - punctuation,
misuse of words, spelling,
sentence construction..
Style Very effective use of English.
Clear and easy to read.
Effective use of English.
Clear and easy to read.
Style acceptable.
Presentation of
data and
references
a) Excellent use of relevant
data and examples, figures,
models. b) References
accurately cited and listed.
Relevant data and examples,
all properly referenced.
References accurately cited
and listed.
Some good use of relevant data
and examples but incompletely
referenced. Occasional errors
in citation missing or incorrect
citations and/or bib. entries.
Overall
presentation
Excellent presentation. Well
organised and presented.
Students’ Handbook
followed.
Carefully organised and well
presented. Students’
Handbook followed.
Presentation generally
satisfactory. Some elements
not as per Students’ Handbook.
2
Comments:
An excellent essay which omits very little of significance. It is well written and sensibly orgainised,
following the framework of the essay title. Your essay contains a commendable level of critical comment.
Your analysis of ways of managing conflict would have benefited from a look at Organisational
Development literature. You used a wide range of sources both book and journal and related the general
management material very well to the professional literature. Beware of using too much LIS material in
management essays. It is often derivative and short on insights. Your conclusion did not really do justice to
your essay. This is where you summarise the main points made in the different parts of your essay and come
to some conclusions about e.g. the problems of managing change, the chief causes of conflict and the most
effective ways of managing it.
Presentation. Excellent. You made good use of side headings and there were negligible typos. One or two
might have been picked up by reading your essay rather than relying on spell checker.
Bib. citations. Text and bib. Citations accurate. Just an occasional inconsistency: If text is Bluck in Pinder
and Melling (1996) then bib. entry should be under Pinder and Melling, not Bluck. i.e. you should reference
the source in which Bluck appears. Occasional citation errors: Huczynski and Buchanan/Buchanan and
Huczynski.
Tutor: Date: